References
1. D'Amore K, Swaminathan A. Massive Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2020;38(4):871-89. doi: 10.1016/j.emc.2020.06.008.
2. Barnes GD, Ageno W, Ansell J, et al. Recommendation on the nomenclature for oral anticoagulants: communication from the SSC of the ISTH. J Thromb Haemost. 2015;13(6):1154-6. doi: 10.1111/jth.12969.
3. Banerjee A, Lane DA, Torp-Pedersen C, et al. Net clinical benefit of new oral anticoagulants (dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban) versus no treatment in a 'real world' atrial fibrillation population: a modelling analysis based on a nationwide cohort study. Thromb Haemost. 2012;107(3):584-9. doi: 10.1160/th11-11-0784.
4. Harris PA, Taylor R, Minor BL, et al. The REDCap consortium: Building an international community of software platform partners. J Biomed Inform. 2019;95:103208. doi: 10.1016/j.jbi.2019.103208.
5. Schünemann H, Brożek J, Guyatt G, et al. GRADE handbook for grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. Updated October 2013. The GRADE Working Group, 2013. Available from: https://gdt.gradepro.org/app/handbook/handbook.html.
6. Bertomeu-González V, Moreno-Arribas J, Castillo-Castillo J, et al. Hemorrhage in patients under oral anticoagulation for atrial fibrillation. The other side of the coin. REC: CardioClinics. 2019;54(2):99-105. doi: 10.1016/j.rccl.2019.02.001.
7. Guerrouij M, Uppal CS, Alklabi A, et al. The clinical impact of bleeding during oral anticoagulant therapy: assessment of morbidity, mortality and post-bleed anticoagulant management. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2011;31(4):419-23. doi: 10.1007/s11239-010-0536-7.
8. del Molino F, Gonzalez I, Saperas E. [Management of new oral anticoagulants in gastrointestinal bleeding and endoscopy]. Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2015;38(8):501-10. doi: 10.1016/j.gastrohep.2015.02.014.
9. Di Minno A, Spadarella G, Spadarella E, et al. Gastrointestinal bleeding in patients receiving oral anticoagulation: Current treatment and pharmacological perspectives. Thromb Res. 2015;136(6):1074-81. doi: 10.1016/j.thromres.2015.10.016.
10. Dave M, Kumar A, Majmundar M, et al. Frequency, Trend, Predictors, and Impact of Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Atrial Fibrillation Hospitalizations. Am J Cardiol. 2021;146:29-35. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2021.01.020.
11. Deitelzweig S, Keshishian A, Kang A, et al. Burden of major gastrointestinal bleeding among oral anticoagulant-treated non-valvular atrial fibrillation patients. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2021;14:1756284821997352. doi: 10.1177/1756284821997352.
12. Nieto JA, Solano R, Ruiz-Ribó MD, et al. Fatal bleeding in patients receiving anticoagulant therapy for venous thromboembolism: findings from the RIETE registry. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8(6):1216-22. doi: 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2010.03852.x.
13. Parker DR, Luo X, Jalbert JJ, et al. Impact of upper and lower gastrointestinal blood loss on healthcare utilization and costs: a systematic review. J Med Econ. 2011;14(3):279-87. doi: 10.3111/13696998.2011.571328.
14. Schulman S, Angerås U, Bergqvist D, et al. Definition of major bleeding in clinical investigations of antihemostatic medicinal products in surgical patients. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8(1):202-4. doi: 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2009.03678.x.
15. Schulman S, Kearon C. Definition of major bleeding in clinical investigations of antihemostatic medicinal products in non-surgical patients. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3(4):692-4. doi: 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01204.x.
16. Sevransky J. Clinical assessment of hemodynamically unstable patients. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2009;15(3):234-8. doi: 10.1097/MCC.0b013e32832b70e5.
17. Llau JV, Acosta FJ, Escolar G, et al. Multidisciplinary consensus document on the management of massive haemorrhage (HEMOMAS document). Med Intensiva. 2015;39(8):483-504. doi: 10.1016/j.medin.2015.05.002.
18. Aubron C, Aries P, Le Niger C, et al. How clinicians can minimize transfusion-related adverse events? Transfus Clin Biol. 2018;25(4):257-61. doi: 10.1016/j.tracli.2018.08.158.
19. D'Hondt A, Haentjens L, Brassart N, et al. Uncontrolled bleeding of the gastrointestinal tract. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2017;23(6):549-55. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000000452.
20. Jairath V, Desborough MJ. Modern-day management of upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Transfus Med. 2015;25(6):351-7. doi: 10.1111/tme.12266.
21. Ruff CT, Giugliano RP, Braunwald E, et al. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of new oral anticoagulants with warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet. 2014;383(9921):955-62. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62343-0.
22. Loffredo L, Perri L, Violi F. Impact of new oral anticoagulants on gastrointestinal bleeding in atrial fibrillation: A meta-analysis of interventional trials. Dig Liver Dis. 2015;47(5):429-31. doi: 10.1016/j.dld.2015.01.159.
23. Caldeira D, Barra M, Ferreira A, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: the risk of major gastrointestinal bleeding with non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2015;42(11-12):1239-49. doi: 10.1111/apt.13412.
24. Miller CS, Dorreen A, Martel M, et al. Risk of Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Patients Taking Non-Vitamin K Antagonist Oral Anticoagulants: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;15(11):1674-83.e3. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2017.04.031.
25. Burr N, Lummis K, Sood R, et al. Risk of gastrointestinal bleeding with direct oral anticoagulants: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;2(2):85-93. doi: 10.1016/s2468-1253(16)30162-5.
26. Almutairi AR, Zhou L, Gellad WF, et al. Effectiveness and Safety of Non-vitamin K Antagonist Oral Anticoagulants for Atrial Fibrillation and Venous Thromboembolism: A Systematic Review and Meta-analyses. Clin Ther. 2017;39(7):1456-78.e36. doi: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2017.05.358.
27. Gu ZC, Wei AH, Zhang C, et al. Risk of Major Gastrointestinal Bleeding With New vs Conventional Oral Anticoagulants: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;18(4):792-9.e61. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2019.05.056.
28. Benamouzig R, Guenoun M, Deutsch D, et al. Review Article: Gastrointestinal Bleeding Risk with Direct Oral Anticoagulants. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2021. doi: 10.1007/s10557-021-07211-0.
29. Aloysius MM, Perisetti A, Goyal H, et al. Direct-acting oral anticoagulants versus warfarin in relation to risk of gastrointestinal bleeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ann Gastroenterol. 2021;34(5):651-9. doi: 10.20524/aog.2021.0658.
30. Lip GY, Mitchell SA, Liu X, et al. Relative efficacy and safety of non-Vitamin K oral anticoagulants for non-valvular atrial fibrillation: Network meta-analysis comparing apixaban, dabigatran, rivaroxaban and edoxaban in three patient subgroups. Int J Cardiol. 2016;204:88-94. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2015.11.084.
31. Xu WW, Hu SJ, Wu T. Risk analysis of new oral anticoagulants for gastrointestinal bleeding and intracranial hemorrhage in atrial fibrillation patients: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2017;18(7):567-76. doi: 10.1631/jzus.B1600143.
32. Xu W, Lv M, Wu S, et al. Severe Bleeding Risk of Direct Oral Anticoagulants Versus Vitamin K Antagonists for Stroke Prevention and Treatment in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2021. doi: 10.1007/s10557-021-07232-9.
33. López-López JA, Sterne JAC, Thom HHZ, et al. Oral anticoagulants for prevention of stroke in atrial fibrillation: systematic review, network meta-analysis, and cost effectiveness analysis. Bmj. 2017;359:j5058. doi: 10.1136/bmj.j5058.
34. Radadiya D, Devani K, Brahmbhatt B, et al. Major gastrointestinal bleeding risk with direct oral anticoagulants: Does type and dose matter? - A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021. doi: 10.1097/meg.0000000000002035.
35. Cohen AT, Berger SE, Milenković D, et al. Anticoagulant selection for patients with VTE-Evidence from a systematic literature review of network meta-analyses. Pharmacol Res. 2019;143:166-77. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.03.017.
36. Oh HJ, Ryu KH, Park BJ, et al. The risk of gastrointestinal hemorrhage with non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants: A network meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2021;100(11):e25216. doi: 10.1097/md.0000000000025216.
37. Eikelboom JW, Wallentin L, Connolly SJ, et al. Risk of bleeding with 2 doses of dabigatran compared with warfarin in older and younger patients with atrial fibrillation: an analysis of the randomized evaluation of long-term anticoagulant therapy (RE-LY) trial. Circulation. 2011;123(21):2363-72. doi: 10.1161/circulationaha.110.004747.
38. Abraham NS, Singh S, Alexander GC, et al. Comparative risk of gastrointestinal bleeding with dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and warfarin: population based cohort study. Bmj. 2015;350:h1857. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h1857.
39. Chang HY, Zhou M, Tang W, et al. Risk of gastrointestinal bleeding associated with oral anticoagulants: population based retrospective cohort study. Bmj. 2015;350:h1585. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h1585.
40. Chan EW, Lau WC, Leung WK, et al. Prevention of Dabigatran-Related Gastrointestinal Bleeding With Gastroprotective Agents: A Population-Based Study. Gastroenterology. 2015;149(3):586-95.e3. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2015.05.002.
41. Halperin JL, Hankey GJ, Wojdyla DM, et al. Efficacy and safety of rivaroxaban compared with warfarin among elderly patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation in the Rivaroxaban Once Daily, Oral, Direct Factor Xa Inhibition Compared With Vitamin K Antagonism for Prevention of Stroke and Embolism Trial in Atrial Fibrillation (ROCKET AF). Circulation. 2014;130(2):138-46. doi: 10.1161/circulationaha.113.005008.
42. Desai J, Granger CB, Weitz JI, et al. Novel oral anticoagulants in gastroenterology practice. Gastrointest Endosc. 2013;78(2):227-39. doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2013.04.179.
43. Holster IL, Valkhoff VE, Kuipers EJ, et al. New oral anticoagulants increase risk for gastrointestinal bleeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastroenterology. 2013;145(1):105-12.e15. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2013.02.041.
44. Dans AL, Connolly SJ, Wallentin L, et al. Concomitant use of antiplatelet therapy with dabigatran or warfarin in the Randomized Evaluation of Long-Term Anticoagulation Therapy (RE-LY) trial. Circulation. 2013;127(5):634-40. doi: 10.1161/circulationaha.112.115386.
45. Qazi JZ, Schnitzer ME, Côté R, et al. Predicting major bleeding among hospitalized patients using oral anticoagulants for atrial fibrillation after discharge. PLoS One. 2021;16(3):e0246691. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246691.
46. de Franchis R, Bosch J, Garcia-Tsao G, et al. Baveno VII - Renewing consensus in portal hypertension. J Hepatol. 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2021.12.022.
47. Pisters R, Lane DA, Nieuwlaat R, et al. A novel user-friendly score (HAS-BLED) to assess 1-year risk of major bleeding in patients with atrial fibrillation: the Euro Heart Survey. Chest. 2010;138(5):1093-100. doi: 10.1378/chest.10-0134.
48. Lip GY, Frison L, Halperin JL, et al. Comparative validation of a novel risk score for predicting bleeding risk in anticoagulated patients with atrial fibrillation: the HAS-BLED (Hypertension, Abnormal Renal/Liver Function, Stroke, Bleeding History or Predisposition, Labile INR, Elderly, Drugs/Alcohol Concomitantly) score. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;57(2):173-80. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2010.09.024.
49. Weitz JI, Pollack CV, Jr. Practical management of bleeding in patients receiving non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants. Thromb Haemost. 2015;114(6):1113-26. doi: 10.1160/th15-03-0222.
50. Cheung KS, Leung WK. Gastrointestinal bleeding in patients on novel oral anticoagulants: Risk, prevention and management. World J Gastroenterol. 2017;23(11):1954-63. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v23.i11.1954.
51. Meléndez-Lugo JJ, Caicedo Y, Guzmán-Rodríguez M, et al. Prehospital Damage Control: The Management of Volume, Temperature… and Bleeding! Colomb Med (Cali). 2020;51(4):e4024486. doi: 10.25100/cm.v51i4.4486.
52. Demetriades D, Chan L, Cornwell E, et al. Paramedic vs private transportation of trauma patients. Effect on outcome. Arch Surg. 1996;131(2):133-8. doi: 10.1001/archsurg.1996.01430140023007.
53. Wandling MW, Nathens AB, Shapiro MB, et al. Police transport versus ground EMS: A trauma system-level evaluation of prehospital care policies and their effect on clinical outcomes. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016;81(5):931-5. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000001228.
54. García DA, Crowther M. Management of bleeding in patients receiving direct oral anticoagulants. 2021 [cited September 29, 2021]. In: UpToDate [Internet]. Waltham MA, [cited September 29, 2021].
55. Barkun AN, Almadi M, Kuipers EJ, et al. Management of Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding: Guideline Recommendations From the International Consensus Group. Ann Intern Med. 2019;171(11):805-22. doi: 10.7326/m19-1795.
56. Gralnek IM, Stanley AJ, Morris AJ, et al. Endoscopic diagnosis and management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage (NVUGIH): European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Guideline - Update 2021. Endoscopy. 2021;53(3):300-32. doi: 10.1055/a-1369-5274.
57. Farrell MS, Kim WC, Stein DM. Emergency Transfusions. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2020;38(4):795-805. doi: 10.1016/j.emc.2020.06.005.
58. Committee on Trauma ACoS. Advanced Trauma Life Support for Doctors. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2018.
59. Sihler KC, Napolitano LM. Massive transfusion: new insights. Chest. 2009;136(6):1654-67. doi: 10.1378/chest.09-0251.
60. Laine L, Barkun AN, Saltzman JR, et al. ACG Clinical Guideline: Upper Gastrointestinal and Ulcer Bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol. 2021;116(5):899-917. doi: 10.14309/ajg.0000000000001245.
61. NOACs/DOACs: Management of Bleeding. Thrombosis Canada Guidelines [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://thrombosiscanada.ca/clinicalguides/.
62. Jensen DM, Machicado GA. Diagnosis and treatment of severe hematochezia. The role of urgent colonoscopy after purge. Gastroenterology. 1988;95(6):1569-74. doi: 10.1016/s0016-5085(88)80079-9.
63. Laine L, Shah A. Randomized trial of urgent vs. elective colonoscopy in patients hospitalized with lower GI bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010;105(12):2636-41; quiz 42. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2010.277.
64. Oakland K, Chadwick G, East JE, et al. Diagnosis and management of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding: guidelines from the British Society of Gastroenterology. Gut. 2019;68(5):776-89. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2018-317807.
65. Triantafyllou K, Gkolfakis P, Gralnek IM, et al. Diagnosis and management of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Guideline. Endoscopy. 2021;53(8):850-68. doi: 10.1055/a-1496-8969.
66. Cooper GS, Kou TD, Wong RC. Outpatient management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: unexpected mortality in Medicare beneficiaries. Gastroenterology. 2009;136(1):108-14. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2008.09.030.
67. Bardou M, Benhaberou-Brun D, Le Ray I, et al. Diagnosis and management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;9(2):97-104. doi: 10.1038/nrgastro.2011.260.
68. Atkinson RJ, Hurlstone DP. Usefulness of prognostic indices in upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2008;22(2):233-42. doi: 10.1016/j.bpg.2007.11.004.
69. Blatchford O, Murray WR, Blatchford M. A risk score to predict need for treatment for upper-gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Lancet. 2000;356(9238):1318-21. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02816-6.
70. Cheng DW, Lu YW, Teller T, et al. A modified Glasgow Blatchford Score improves risk stratification in upper gastrointestinal bleed: a prospective comparison of scoring systems. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2012;36(8):782-9. doi: 10.1111/apt.12029.
71. Rockall TA, Logan RF, Devlin HB, et al. Variation in outcome after acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage. The National Audit of Acute Upper Gastrointestinal Haemorrhage. Lancet. 1995;346(8971):346-50. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(95)92227-x.
72. Saltzman JR, Tabak YP, Hyett BH, et al. A simple risk score accurately predicts in-hospital mortality, length of stay, and cost in acute upper GI bleeding. Gastrointest Endosc. 2011;74(6):1215-24. doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2011.06.024.
73. Redondo-Cerezo E, Vadillo-Calles F, Stanley AJ, et al. MAP(ASH): A new scoring system for the prediction of intervention and mortality in upper gastrointestinal bleeding. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;35(1):82-9. doi: 10.1111/jgh.14811.
74. Strate LL, Ayanian JZ, Kotler G, et al. Risk factors for mortality in lower intestinal bleeding. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;6(9):1004-10; quiz 955-. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2008.03.021.
75. Das A, Ben-Menachem T, Cooper GS, et al. Prediction of outcome in acute lower-gastrointestinal haemorrhage based on an artificial neural network: internal and external validation of a predictive model. Lancet. 2003;362(9392):1261-6. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14568-0.
76. Aoki T, Nagata N, Shimbo T, et al. Development and Validation of a Risk Scoring System for Severe Acute Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;14(11):1562-70.e2. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2016.05.042.
77. Oakland K, Jairath V, Uberoi R, et al. Derivation and validation of a novel risk score for safe discharge after acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding: a modelling study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;2(9):635-43. doi: 10.1016/s2468-1253(17)30150-4.
78. Sengupta N, Tapper EB. Derivation and Internal Validation of a Clinical Prediction Tool for 30-Day Mortality in Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding. Am J Med. 2017;130(5):601.e1-.e8. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2016.12.009.
79. Aoki T, Hirata Y, Yamada A, et al. Initial management for acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. World J Gastroenterol. 2019;25(1):69-84. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v25.i1.69.
80. Steffel J, Collins R, Antz M, et al. 2021 European Heart Rhythm Association Practical Guide on the Use of Non-Vitamin K Antagonist Oral Anticoagulants in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation. Europace. 2021;23(10):1612-76. doi: 10.1093/europace/euab065.
81. Diener HC, Aisenberg J, Ansell J, et al. Choosing a particular oral anticoagulant and dose for stroke prevention in individual patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation: part 2. Eur Heart J. 2017;38(12):860-8. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehw069.
82. Scaglione F. New oral anticoagulants: comparative pharmacology with vitamin K antagonists. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2013;52(2):69-82. doi: 10.1007/s40262-012-0030-9.
83. Huang ES, Karsan S, Kanwal F, et al. Impact of nasogastric lavage on outcomes in acute GI bleeding. Gastrointest Endosc. 2011;74(5):971-80. doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2011.04.045.
84. Pallin DJ, Saltzman JR. Is nasogastric tube lavage in patients with acute upper GI bleeding indicated or antiquated? Gastrointest Endosc. 2011;74(5):981-4. doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2011.07.007.
85. Gené E, Calvet X. [Nasogastric intubation in patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding?]. Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;39(8):497-9. doi: 10.1016/j.gastrohep.2015.12.006.
86. Cúrdia-Gonçalves T, Rosa B, Cotter J. New insights on an old medical emergency: non-portal hypertension related upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Rev Esp Enferm Dig. 2016;108(10):648-56. doi: 10.17235/reed.2016.4240/2016.
87. Barkun A, Bardou M, Marshall JK. Consensus recommendations for managing patients with nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139(10):843-57. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-139-10-200311180-00012.
88. Kessel B, Olsha O, Younis A, et al. Evaluation of nasogastric tubes to enable differentiation between upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding in unselected patients with melena. Eur J Emerg Med. 2016;23(1):71-3. doi: 10.1097/mej.0000000000000263.
89. Machlab S, García-Iglesias P, Martínez-Bauer E, et al. Diagnostic utility of nasogastric tube aspiration and the ratio of blood urea nitrogen to creatinine for distinguishing upper and lower gastrointestinal tract bleeding. Emergencias. 2018;30(6):419-23.
90. Rockey DC, Ahn C, de Melo SW, Jr. Randomized pragmatic trial of nasogastric tube placement in patients with upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding. J Investig Med. 2017;65(4):759-64. doi: 10.1136/jim-2016-000375.
91. Hayat U, Lee PJ, Ullah H, et al. Association of prophylactic endotracheal intubation in critically ill patients with upper GI bleeding and cardiopulmonary unplanned events. Gastrointest Endosc. 2017;86(3):500-9.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2016.12.008.
92. Almashhrawi AA, Rahman R, Jersak ST, et al. Prophylactic tracheal intubation for upper GI bleeding: A meta-analysis. World J Metaanal. 2015;3(1):4-10. doi: 10.13105/wjma.v3.i1.4.
93. Alshamsi F, Jaeschke R, Baw B, et al. Prophylactic Endotracheal Intubation in Patients with Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding Undergoing Endoscopy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Saudi J Med Med Sci. 2017;5(3):201-9. doi: 10.4103/sjmms.sjmms_95_17.
94. Chaudhuri D, Bishay K, Tandon P, et al. Prophylactic endotracheal intubation in critically ill patients with upper gastrointestinal bleed: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JGH Open. 2020;4(1):22-8. doi: 10.1002/jgh3.12195.
95. Holzwanger EA, Mahmoud M, Wassef W. Advances in management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2018;34(6):436-43. doi: 10.1097/mog.0000000000000487.
96. Cai JX, Saltzman JR. Initial Assessment, Risk Stratification, and Early Management of Acute Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am. 2018;28(3):261-75. doi: 10.1016/j.giec.2018.02.001.
97. Khamaysi I, Gralnek IM. Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding: Timing of Endoscopy and Ways to Improve Endoscopic Visualization. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am. 2015;25(3):443-8. doi: 10.1016/j.giec.2015.03.002.
98. Tsoi KK, Ma TK, Sung JJ. Endoscopy for upper gastrointestinal bleeding: how urgent is it? Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2009;6(8):463-9. doi: 10.1038/nrgastro.2009.108.
99. Lau JYW, Yu Y, Tang RSY, et al. Timing of Endoscopy for Acute Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(14):1299-308. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1912484.
100. Tsay C, Shung D, Stemmer Frumento K, et al. Early Colonoscopy Does Not Improve Outcomes of Patients With Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding: Systematic Review of Randomized Trials. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;18(8):1696-703.e2. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2019.11.061.
101. Samuel R, Bilal M, Tayyem O, et al. Evaluation and management of Non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Dis Mon. 2018;64(7):333-43. doi: 10.1016/j.disamonth.2018.02.003.
102. Kasotakis G, Sideris A, Yang Y, et al. Aggressive early crystalloid resuscitation adversely affects outcomes in adult blunt trauma patients: an analysis of the Glue Grant database. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2013;74(5):1215-21; discussion 21-2. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e3182826e13.
103. Ley EJ, Clond MA, Srour MK, et al. Emergency department crystalloid resuscitation of 1.5 L or more is associated with increased mortality in elderly and nonelderly trauma patients. J Trauma. 2011;70(2):398-400. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e318208f99b.
104. Kettner SC, Kozek SA, Groetzner JP, et al. Effects of hypothermia on thrombelastography in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass. Br J Anaesth. 1998;80(3):313-7. doi: 10.1093/bja/80.3.313.
105. Engström M, Schött U, Romner B, et al. Acidosis impairs the coagulation: A thromboelastographic study. J Trauma. 2006;61(3):624-8. doi: 10.1097/01.ta.0000226739.30655.75.
106. Jiménez Vizuete JM, Pérez Valdivieso JM, Navarro Suay R, et al. [Resuscitation damage control in the patient with severe trauma]. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2012;59(1):31-42. doi: 10.1016/j.redar.2011.12.001.
107. Cap AP, Pidcoke HF, Spinella P, et al. Damage Control Resuscitation. Mil Med. 2018;183(suppl_2):36-43. doi: 10.1093/milmed/usy112.
108. Cole E, Weaver A, Gall L, et al. A Decade of Damage Control Resuscitation: New Transfusion Practice, New Survivors, New Directions. Ann Surg. 2021;273(6):1215-20. doi: 10.1097/sla.0000000000003657.
109. Baradarian R, Ramdhaney S, Chapalamadugu R, et al. Early intensive resuscitation of patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding decreases mortality. Am J Gastroenterol. 2004;99(4):619-22. doi: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2004.04073.x.
110. Abougergi MS, Travis AC, Saltzman JR. The in-hospital mortality rate for upper GI hemorrhage has decreased over 2 decades in the United States: a nationwide analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2015;81(4):882-8.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2014.09.027.
111. Villanueva C, Colomo A, Bosch A, et al. Transfusion strategies for acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(1):11-21. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1211801.
112. Kanjee Z, Asombang AW, Berzin TM, et al. How Would You Manage This Patient With Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding? : Grand Rounds Discussion From Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center. Ann Intern Med. 2021;174(6):836-43. doi: 10.7326/m21-1206.
113. Odutayo A, Desborough MJ, Trivella M, et al. Restrictive versus liberal blood transfusion for gastrointestinal bleeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;2(5):354-60. doi: 10.1016/s2468-1253(17)30054-7.
114. Kola G, Sureshkumar S, Mohsina S, et al. Restrictive versus liberal transfusion strategy in upper gastrointestinal bleeding: A randomized controlled trial. Saudi J Gastroenterol. 2021;27(1):13-9. doi: 10.4103/sjg.SJG_152_20.
115. Qaseem A, Humphrey LL, Fitterman N, et al. Treatment of anemia in patients with heart disease: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(11):770-9. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-159-11-201312030-00009.
116. Padhi S, Kemmis-Betty S, Rajesh S, et al. Blood transfusion: summary of NICE guidance. Bmj. 2015;351:h5832. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h5832.
117. Savage SA, Zarzaur BL, Croce MA, et al. Redefining massive transfusion when every second counts. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2013;74(2):396-400; discussion -2. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e31827a3639.
118. Malone DL, Hess JR, Fingerhut A. Massive transfusion practices around the globe and a suggestion for a common massive transfusion protocol. J Trauma. 2006;60(6 Suppl):S91-6. doi: 10.1097/01.ta.0000199549.80731.e6.
119. Stainsby D, MacLennan S, Hamilton PJ. Management of massive blood loss: a template guideline. Br J Anaesth. 2000;85(3):487-91. doi: 10.1093/bja/85.3.487.
120. Patient Blood Management Guidelines: Module 1. Critical Bleeding/Massive Transfusion. 2011. Canberra, Australia: National Blood Authority (NBA).
121. Hayter MA, Pavenski K, Baker J. Massive transfusion in the trauma patient: Continuing Professional Development. Can J Anaesth. 2012;59(12):1130-45. doi: 10.1007/s12630-012-9795-4.
122. Martínez-Calle N, Hidalgo F, Alfonso A, et al. Implementation of a management protocol for massive bleeding reduces mortality in non-trauma patients: Results from a single centre audit. Med Intensiva. 2016;40(9):550-9. doi: 10.1016/j.medin.2016.05.003.
123. Sommer N, Schnüriger B, Candinas D, et al. Massive transfusion protocols in nontrauma patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2019;86(3):493-504. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000002101.
124. Etchill EW, Myers SP, McDaniel LM, et al. Should All Massively Transfused Patients Be Treated Equally? An Analysis of Massive Transfusion Ratios in the Nontrauma Setting. Crit Care Med. 2017;45(8):1311-6. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000002498.
125. Alikhan R, Rayment R, Keeling D, et al. The acute management of haemorrhage, surgery and overdose in patients receiving dabigatran. Emerg Med J. 2014;31(2):163-8. doi: 10.1136/emermed-2012-201976.
126. Kaide CG, Gulseth MP. Current Strategies for the Management of Bleeding Associated with Direct Oral Anticoagulants and a Review of Investigational Reversal Agents. J Emerg Med. 2020;58(2):217-33. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2019.10.011.
127. Delrue M, Chevillard L, Stépanian A, et al. Case series of massive direct oral anticoagulant ingestion-Treatment and pharmacokinetics data. Eur J Clin Invest. 2022:e13746. doi: 10.1111/eci.13746.
128. van Ryn J, Stangier J, Haertter S, et al. Dabigatran etexilate--a novel, reversible, oral direct thrombin inhibitor: interpretation of coagulation assays and reversal of anticoagulant activity. Thromb Haemost. 2010;103(6):1116-27. doi: 10.1160/th09-11-0758.
129. Khadzhynov D, Wagner F, Formella S, et al. Effective elimination of dabigatran by haemodialysis. A phase I single-centre study in patients with end-stage renal disease. Thromb Haemost. 2013;109(4):596-605. doi: 10.1160/th12-08-0573.
130. Tomaselli GF, Mahaffey KW, Cuker A, et al. 2020 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on Management of Bleeding in Patients on Oral Anticoagulants: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(5):594-622. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.04.053.
131. Sung JJ, Chiu PW, Chan FKL, et al. Asia-Pacific working group consensus on non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: an update 2018. Gut. 2018;67(10):1757-68. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316276.
132. Lip GYH, Banerjee A, Boriani G, et al. Antithrombotic Therapy for Atrial Fibrillation: CHEST Guideline and Expert Panel Report. Chest. 2018;154(5):1121-201. doi: 10.1016/j.chest.2018.07.040.
133. Witt DM, Nieuwlaat R, Clark NP, et al. American Society of Hematology 2018 guidelines for management of venous thromboembolism: optimal management of anticoagulation therapy. Blood Adv. 2018;2(22):3257-91. doi: 10.1182/bloodadvances.2018024893.
134. Karstensen JG, Ebigbo A, Aabakken L, et al. Nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Cascade Guideline. Endosc Int Open. 2018;6(10):E1256-e63. doi: 10.1055/a-0677-2084.
135. Cuker A, Burnett A, Triller D, et al. Reversal of direct oral anticoagulants: Guidance from the Anticoagulation Forum. Am J Hematol. 2019;94(6):697-709. doi: 10.1002/ajh.25475.
136. Nable JV, Graham AC. Gastrointestinal Bleeding. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2016;34(2):309-25. doi: 10.1016/j.emc.2015.12.001.
137. Cuker A, Siegal D. Monitoring and reversal of direct oral anticoagulants. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2015;2015:117-24. doi: 10.1182/asheducation-2015.1.117.
138. Hindricks G, Potpara T, Dagres N, et al. 2020 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS): The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of atrial fibrillation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Developed with the special contribution of the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA) of the ESC. Eur Heart J. 2021;42(5):373-498. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa612.
139. Sarode C. Direct oral anticoagulant monitoring: what laboratory tests are available to guide us?. Hematology 2019, the American Society of Hematology Education Program Book. 2019(1)2019. p. 194-7.
140. Samuelson BT, Cuker A, Siegal DM, et al. Laboratory Assessment of the Anticoagulant Activity of Direct Oral Anticoagulants: A Systematic Review. Chest. 2017;151(1):127-38. doi: 10.1016/j.chest.2016.08.1462.
141. NOACs/DOACs: Coagulation Tests. Thrombosis Canada Guidelines [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://thrombosiscanada.ca/clinicalguides/.
142. Pollack CV, Jr., Reilly PA, van Ryn J, et al. Idarucizumab for Dabigatran Reversal - Full Cohort Analysis. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(5):431-41. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1707278.
143. Thibault N, Morrill AM, Willett KC. Idarucizumab for Reversing Dabigatran-Induced Anticoagulation: A Systematic Review. Am J Ther. 2018;25(3):e333-e8. doi: 10.1097/mjt.0000000000000460.
144. Udayachalerm S, Rattanasiri S, Angkananard T, et al. The Reversal of Bleeding Caused by New Oral Anticoagulants (NOACs): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2018;24(9_suppl):117s-26s. doi: 10.1177/1076029618796339.
145. Lu VM, Phan K, Rao PJ, et al. Dabigatran reversal by idarucizumab in the setting of intracranial hemorrhage: A systematic review of the literature. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2019;181:76-81. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2019.04.013.
146. Rodrigues AO, David C, Ferreira JJ, et al. The incidence of thrombotic events with idarucizumab and andexanet alfa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Thromb Res. 2020;196:291-6. doi: 10.1016/j.thromres.2020.09.003.
147. Connolly SJ, Crowther M, Eikelboom JW, et al. Full Study Report of Andexanet Alfa for Bleeding Associated with Factor Xa Inhibitors. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(14):1326-35. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1814051.
148. Kozieł M, Ding WY, Kalarus Z, et al. Considerations when restarting anticoagulants in patients with atrial fibrillation after bleeding. Expert Rev Hematol. 2019;12(10):845-55. doi: 10.1080/17474086.2019.1647779.
149. Witt DM. What to do after the bleed: resuming anticoagulation after major bleeding. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2016;2016(1):620-4. doi: 10.1182/asheducation-2016.1.620.
150. Hawryluk GW, Furlan JC, Austin JW, et al. Individual characteristics and management decisions affect outcome of anticoagulated patients with intracranial hemorrhage. World Neurosurg. 2014;81(5-6):742-51. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2013.01.080.
151. Kido K, Scalese MJ. Management of Oral Anticoagulation Therapy After Gastrointestinal Bleeding: Whether to, When to, and How to Restart an Anticoagulation Therapy. Ann Pharmacother. 2017;51(11):1000-7. doi: 10.1177/1060028017717019.
152. Murthy SB, Gupta A, Merkler AE, et al. Restarting Anticoagulant Therapy After Intracranial Hemorrhage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Stroke. 2017;48(6):1594-600. doi: 10.1161/strokeaha.116.016327.
153. Witt DM, Delate T, Garcia DA, et al. Risk of thromboembolism, recurrent hemorrhage, and death after warfarin therapy interruption for gastrointestinal tract bleeding. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172(19):1484-91. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2012.4261.
154. Lee JK, Kang HW, Kim SG, et al. Risks related with withholding and resuming anticoagulation in patients with non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding while on warfarin therapy. Int J Clin Pract. 2012;66(1):64-8. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-1241.2011.02827.x.
155. Qureshi W, Mittal C, Patsias I, et al. Restarting anticoagulation and outcomes after major gastrointestinal bleeding in atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 2014;113(4):662-8. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2013.10.044.
156. Tapaskar N, Pang A, Werner DA, et al. Resuming Anticoagulation Following Hospitalization for Gastrointestinal Bleeding Is Associated with Reduced Thromboembolic Events and Improved Mortality: Results from a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Dig Dis Sci. 2021;66(2):554-66. doi: 10.1007/s10620-020-06248-9.
157. Chai-Adisaksopha C, Hillis C, Monreal M, et al. Thromboembolic events, recurrent bleeding and mortality after resuming anticoagulant following gastrointestinal bleeding. A meta-analysis. Thromb Haemost. 2015;114(4):819-25. doi: 10.1160/th15-01-0063.
158. Tapaskar N, Ham SA, Micic D, et al. Restarting Warfarin vs Direct Oral Anticoagulants After Major Gastrointestinal Bleeding and Associated Outcomes in Atrial Fibrillation: A Cohort Study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;20(2):381-9.e9. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2020.11.029.
159. Sostres C, Marcén B, Laredo V, et al. Risk of rebleeding, vascular events and death after gastrointestinal bleeding in anticoagulant and/or antiplatelet users. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2019;50(8):919-29. doi: 10.1111/apt.15441.
160. Staerk L, Lip GY, Olesen JB, et al. Stroke and recurrent haemorrhage associated with antithrombotic treatment after gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with atrial fibrillation: nationwide cohort study. Bmj. 2015;351:h5876. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h5876.
161. Jiménez-Rosales R, Valverde-López F, Vadillo-Calles F, et al. Inhospital and delayed mortality after upper gastrointestinal bleeding: an analysis of risk factors in a prospective series. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2018;53(6):714-20. doi: 10.1080/00365521.2018.1454509.
162. Redondo-Cerezo E, Ortega-Suazo EJ, Vadillo-Calles F, et al. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients 80 years old and over. A comparison with younger patients and risk factors analysis for in-hospital and delayed mortality. Int J Clin Pract. 2021;75(11):e14806. doi: 10.1111/ijcp.14806.
163. Lanas A, García-Rodríguez LA, Polo-Tomás M, et al. Time trends and impact of upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding and perforation in clinical practice. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104(7):1633-41. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2009.164.
164. Oakland K. Changing epidemiology and etiology of upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2019;42-43:101610. doi: 10.1016/j.bpg.2019.04.003.
165. Abougergi MS. Epidemiology of Upper Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage in the USA: Is the Bleeding Slowing Down? Dig Dis Sci. 2018;63(5):1091-3. doi: 10.1007/s10620-018-4951-5.
166. Wuerth BA, Rockey DC. Changing Epidemiology of Upper Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage in the Last Decade: A Nationwide Analysis. Dig Dis Sci. 2018;63(5):1286-93. doi: 10.1007/s10620-017-4882-6.